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  • Epigenetic silencing of genes that determine tumor invasiven

    2020-09-17

    Epigenetic silencing of genes that determine tumor invasiveness, growth patterns of tumors, and tumor-cell apoptosis12, 29 may also affect the expression of drug-metabolizing enzymes, thereby providing an additional genetic mechanism in pharmacogenomics. Trisomy 8 that contains wild-type GGH could be used as a first parameter to define a subgroup of ALL with higher GGH activity than that of the ALL subgroup with disomy 8. Among B-lineage ALL xylometazoline containing disomy 8, epigenetic modification (methylation in both CpG1 and CpG2) had a more pronounced effect on GGH activity than did the 452C→T SNP (fig. 4B). ALL cells in which both CpG1 and CpG2 were methylated showed more than twofold lower GGH expression and GGH activity than did all the others. We have shown elsewhere that the GGH SNP 452C→T changes the protein surface conformation at the end of substrate-binding cleft and reduces binding affinity with long-chain MTXPG. This SNP significantly lowers but does not abolish catalytic activity and has a much less pronounced effect on GGH activity than does hypermethylation of the GGH promoter. Because numerous DNA changes, such as chromosomal aberration and epigenetic modification, are often cancer-cell specific, germline genotyping does not always fully assess quantitative differences in cancer genomes or cancer-cell phenotypes. Unequivocal elucidation of cancer-cell pharmacogenomics may therefore require consideration of the special features of the cancer-cell genome.9, 49 Indeed, we show that GGH activity in human leukemia cells is determined by epigenetic changes as well as germline genetic polymorphisms and karyotypic abnormalities in leukemia cells, which together account for a substantial proportion of interindividual differences in GGH activity and MTXPG disposition in human ALL cells (fig. 6). The current findings are important because they show that multiple genomic mechanisms can control the expression and function of a single gene in cancer cells and thereby determine the pharmacogenomics of anticancer agents. Our results also indicate that genetic and epigenetic changes can have differing or additive effects on pharmacogenetics of an anticancer drug in cancer cells. In this study, we report substantial interindividual variability in GGH activity and MTXPG disposition in human ALL cells and that this variability is determined by multiple genetic and epigenetic mechanisms. It has been reported that undetectable GGH mRNA expression and GGH protein are associated with good prognosis of pulmonary neuroendocrine tumors and that high accumulation of MTXPG in ALL cells is associated with better treatment response.5, 23 It will be important to extend these studies to larger cohorts of patients, in which the effects of these epigenetic changes on MTX activity and treatment outcome can be more fully elucidated. The current studies are an important foundation for future studies to define the utility of these genetic, karyotypic, and epigenetic factors for individualizing MTX therapy for ALL on the basis of pharmacogenomics.
    Acknowledgments
    Introduction Pattern separation is the ability to make distinct representations from highly overlapping information, a process which is important for memory encoding (Clelland et al., 2009). For correct pattern separation, old information needs to be retrieved and compared to new information. If the information is similar, but not exactly the same, it needs to be stored separately (Kirwan & Stark, 2007). The concept of pattern separation was initially described from computational-neuronal models (Marr, Willshaw, & McNaughton, 1991) and only recently it has been shown to be an integral part of normal neuronal functioning (Clelland et al., 2009). In turn, the study of pattern separation gained more interest due to evidence indicating that pattern separation is one of the underlying cognitive processes that are impaired in neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders, like anxiety (Kheirbek, Klemenhagen, Sahay, & Hen, 2012) and schizophrenia (Tamminga, Stan, & Wagner, 2010). It is suggested that impairments in pattern separation is an endophenotype of these disorders and being expressed as the inability of individuals to distinguish between similar daily cues, resulting in panic attacks and psychotic behavior (Das et al., 2014, Kheirbek et al., 2012, Mineka and Zinbarg, 2006, Tamminga et al., 2010). Taking this into account, pattern separation could be a promising test for future diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders.